HOUSTON — The number of U.S. oil refineries exceeding the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s action level for benzene in 2023 was cut in half compared to 2020, according to a new report from the Environmental Integrity Project.
In 2023 just six refineries were above the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s average annual “action level,” compared to 12 back in 2020. The level, which is nine micrograms per cubic meter and was set in 2015, serves as a standard that requires corrective action if the concentration of benzene at a facility exceeds it. Corrective measures include determining the root cause of the emissions and then mitigating the pollution. The 2015 benzene standard also required fenceline monitoring for benzene to be finalized by 2018 at several refineries and chemical plants.
Benzene is a cancer-causing compound found in oil, gas and petroleum products. Long-term exposure can also cause various blood disorders and reproductive harm. Short-term exposure can result in headaches, dizziness and respiratory irritation.
Environmental groups lauded the findings.
“Requiring companies to publicly disclose their fenceline monitoring results and to find and fix benzene pollution sources appears to be working,” said Eric Schaeffer, executive director of the Environmental Integrity Project, in a statement. “Although we and others are sometimes critical of EPA, this is an example of a success story of regulations working to help to protect neighborhoods near refineries from a dangerous pollutant.”
However, it’s not all good news. Houston, the “energy capital of the nation,” hosts one of the six remaining refineries exceeding the EPA’s benzene standards. The Houston-area Pemex (formally Shell) Deer Park Refinery is exceeding the standard more than any of the other remaining refineries and its annual emissions increased to 17.3 micrograms per cubic meter in 2023 — nearly double the EPA’s action level. The levels have been rising over the past two and a half years, according to fenceline data compiled by the Environmental Integrity Project.
“Let's not forget communities that are still suffering from the effects of high benzene levels, such as Deer Park and Galena Park in the Houston area, as well as others nationwide. We must continue to take further strides and actions to provide support to these communities,” said Juan Flores, community air monitoring program manager for Air Alliance Houston, a local nonprofit dedicated to cleaner air, in a statement.
Another Texas refinery — the Total Refinery in Port Arthur — exceeded the EPA’s action level “every reporting period since monitoring began in January 2019,” according to the Environmental Integrity Project report.
“Requiring companies to publicly disclose their fenceline monitoring results and to find and fix benzene pollution sources appears to be working." - Eric Schaeffer, executive director of the Environmental Integrity Project
The report authors did note that the decrease in refineries exceeding the action levels does not account for a few refineries that have onsite monitoring plans that adjust their benzene readings downward if there are known offsite sources — or onsite sources like storage tanks — contributing to the emissions.
In addition to the benzene rule, the EPA in April expanded fenceline monitoring rules for more than 200 chemical companies. The EPA says the rule — created under the Clean Air Act and focused on six pollutants including ethylene oxide, chloroprene, benzene, 1,3-butadiene, ethylene dichloride and vinyl chloride — will reduce toxic air pollution near these plants by roughly 6,200 tons annually, protecting the health and reducing the cancer burden of nearby residents.
“With the success of the benzene monitoring program, hopefully this expansion of fenceline monitoring will mean that even more industrial facilities will feel pressure to curb their emissions of dangerous air pollutants into surrounding communities,” said Schaeffer.
For additional information on benzene levels, the Environmental Integrity Project launched a database including fenceline monitoring data from 2018 through 2023.
CAMERON PARISH, La. — Late into the night, John Allaire watches the facility next to his home shoot 300-foot flares from stacks.
He lives within eyesight of southwest Louisiana’s salty shores, where, for decades, he’s witnessed nearly 200 feet of land between it and his property line disappear into the sea. Two-thirds of the land was rebuilt to aid the oil and gas industry’s LNG expansion. LNG — shorthand for liquified natural gas – is natural gas that's cooled to liquid form for easier storage or transport; it equates to 1/600th the volume of natural gas in a gaseous state. It’s used to generate electricity, or fuel stove tops and home heaters, and in industrial processes like manufacturing fertilizer.
In the U.S., at least 30 new LNG terminal facilities have been constructed or proposed since 2016, according to the
Oil and Gas Watch project. Louisiana and Texas’ Gulf Coast, where five facilities are already operating, will host roughly two-thirds of the new LNG terminals – meaning at least 22 Gulf Coast LNG facilities are currently under construction, were recently approved to break ground or are under further regulatory review.
Although the U.S. didn’t ship LNG until 2016, when a freight tanker left, a few miles from where Cameron Parish’s LNG plants are today, last year the country became the global leader in LNG production and export volume, leapfrogging exporters like Qatar and Australia. The
EIA’s most recent annual outlook estimated that between the current year and 2050, U.S. LNG exports will increase by 152%.
Allaire, 68, watches how saltwater collects where rainwater once fed the area’s diminishing coastal wetlands. “We still come down here with the kids and set out the fishing rods. It's not as nice as it used to be,” he told
Environmental Health News (EHN).
That intimacy with nature drew Allaire to the area when he purchased 311 acres in 1998. An environmental engineer and 30-year oil and gas industry veteran, he helped lead environmental assessments and manage clean-ups, and although retired, he still works part-time as an environmental consultant with major petroleum companies. With a lifetime of oil and gas industry expertise, he’s watched the industry's footprint spread across Louisiana and the Gulf of Mexico’s fragile shores and beyond. Now that the footprints are at the edge of his backyard, Allaire is among a cohort of organizers, residents and fisher-folk in the region mobilizing to stop LNG facility construction. For him, the industry’s expansion usurps the right-or-wrong ethics he carried across his consulting career. For anglers, oil and gas infrastructure has destroyed fishing grounds and prevented smaller vessels from accessing the seafood-rich waters of the Calcasieu River.
From the view of Allaire’s white pickup truck as he drives across his property to the ocean’s shore, he points to where a new LNG facility will replace marshlands. Commonwealth LNG intends to clear the land of trees and then backfill the remaining low-lying field.
“You see what’s happening with the environment,” Allaire said. “When the facts change, I got to change my mind about what we’re doing.”
Community bands together
John Allaire, left, purchased 311 acres in Cameron Parish in 1998, and has watched the oil and gas industry's footprint spread to his property.
Credit: John Allaire
During an Earth Day rally in April, community members gathered in the urban center of Lake Charles to demand local oil and gas industries help deliver a safer, healthier future for all. In between live acts by artists performing south Louisiana’s quintessential zydeco musical style, speakers like James Hiatt, a Calcasieu Parish native with ties to Cameron Parish and a Healthy Gulf organizer, and RISE St. James organizer Sharon Lavigne, who’s fighting against LNG development in rural Plaquemines Parish near the city of New Orleans, asked the nearly 100 in attendance to imagine a day in which the skyline isn’t dotted by oil and gas infrastructure.
Not long ago, it was hard to imagine an Earth Day rally in southwest Louisiana at all. For decades, the area has been decorated with fossil fuel infrastructure. Sunsets on some days are highlighted by the chemicals in the air; at night, thousands of facilities’ lights dot the dark sky.
“It takes a lot of balls for people to start speaking up,” Shreyas Vasudevan, a campaign researcher with the Louisiana Bucket Brigade, told EHN in the days after the rally. In a region with its history and economy intertwined with oil and gas production, “you can get a lot of social criticism – or ostracization, as well – even threats to your life.”
Many are involved in local, regional and national advocacy groups, including the Louisiana Bucket Brigade, Healthy Gulf, the Sierra Club, the Natural Resources Defense Council, the Turtle Island Restoration Network, the Center for Biological Diversity and the National Audubon Society.
“You see what’s happening with the environment,” Allaire said. “When the facts change, I got to change my mind about what we’re doing.” - John Allaire, environmental engineer and 30-year oil and gas industry veteran
But environmental organizers are fighting a multi-billion-dollar industry with federal and state winds at its back. And LNG’s federal support is coupled with existing state initiatives.
Under outgoing Louisiana Gov. John Bel Edwards — a term-limited Democrat — the state pledged a goal of reaching net-zero greenhouse emissions by 2050. Natural gas, which the LNG industry markets as a cleaner-burning alternative, is cited as one of the state’s solutions. Louisiana is the only state that produces a majority of its carbon emissions through fossil fuels refining industries, like LNG, rather than energy production or transportation. Governor Edwards’ office did not return EHN’s request for comment.
This accommodating attitude towards oil and gas industries has resulted in a workforce that’s trained to work in LNG refining facilities across much of the rural Gulf region, said Steven Miles, a lawyer at Baker Botts LLP and a fellow at the Baker Institute’s Center on Energy Studies. Simultaneously, anti-industrialization pushback is lacking. It’s good news for industries like LNG.
“The bad news,” Miles added. “[LNG facilities] are all being jammed in the same areas.”
One rallying cry for opponents is local health. The Environmental Integrity Project found that LNG export terminals emit chemicals like carbon monoxide –potentially deadly– and sulfur dioxide, of which the American Lung Association says long-term exposure can lead to heart disease, cancer, and damage to internal or female reproductive organs.
An analysis of emissions monitoring reports by the advocacy group the Louisiana Bucket Brigade found that Venture Global’s existing Calcasieu Pass facility had more than 2,000 permit violations.That includes exceeding the permit’s authorized air emissions limit to release nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, particulate matter and volatile organic compounds 286 out of its first 343 days of operation.
The Marvel Crane, the first liquid natural gas carrier to transport natural gas from the Southwest Louisiana LNG facility, transits a channel in Hackberry, Louisiana, May 28, 2019.
“This is just one facility,” at a time when three more facilities have been proposed in the region and state, Vasudevan said. Venture Global’s operational LNG facility — also known as Calcasieu Pass — “is much smaller than the other facility they’ve proposed.”
In an area that experienced 18 feet of storm surge during Hurricane Laura in 2020 — and just weeks later, struck by Hurricane Delta — Venture Global is planning to build a second export terminal Known as “CP2,” it’s the largest of the roughly two dozen proposed Gulf LNG export terminals, and a key focal point for the region’s local organizing effort.
Residents “don’t really want LNG as much as they want Cameron [Parish] from 1990 back,” Hiatt told EHN of locals’ nostalgia for a community before storms like Rita in 2005 brought up to 15 feet of storm surge, only for Laura to repeat the damage in 2020. Throughout that time, the parish’s population dipped from roughly 10,000 to 5,000. “But the wolf knocking at the door is LNG. Folks in Cameron think that's going to bring back community, bring back the schools, bring back this time before we had all these storms — when Cameron was pretty prosperous.”
“Clearly,” for the oil and gas industry, “the idea is to transform what was once the center of commercial fishing in Louisiana to gas exports,” Cindy Robertson, an environmental activist in southwest Louisiana, told EHN.
Helping fishers’ impacted by LNG is about “actual survival of this unique culture,” Cooke said.
In a measure of organizers’ success, she pointed to a recent permit hearing for Venture Global’s CP2 proposal. Regionally, it’s the only project that’s received an environmental permit, but not its export permit, which remains under federal review. At the meeting, some spoke on the company’s behalf. As an organizer, it was a moment of clarity, Cooke explained. Venture Global officials “had obviously done a lot of coaching and organizing and getting people together in Cameron to speak out on their behalf,” Cooke said. “So, in a way, that was bad. But in another way, it shows that we really had an impact.”
“It also shows that we have a lot to do,” Cooke added.
Environmental organizers like Alyssa Portaro describe a sense of fortitude among activists — she and her husband to the region’s nearby town of Vinton near the Texas-Louisiana border. Since the families’ relocation to their farm, Portaro has worked with Cameron Parish fisher-folk.
“I’ve not witnessed ‘community’ anywhere like there is in Louisiana,” Portaro told EHN. But a New Jersey native, she understands the toll environmental pollution has on low-income communities. “This environment, it’s so at risk — and it’s currently getting sacrificed to big industries.”
“People don’t know what we’d do without oil and gas. It comes at a big price,” she added.
Southwest Louisiana’s Cameron Parish is one of the state’s most rural localities. Marine economies were the area’s economic drivers until natural disasters and LNG facilities began pushing locals out, commercial fishers claim.
Credit: Xander Peters for Environmental Health News
Residents “don’t really want LNG as much as they want Cameron [Parish] from 1990 back,” James Hiatt , a Healthy Gulf organizer, told EHN. "But the wolf knocking at the door is LNG."
Credit: Xander Peters for Environmental Health News
For the most part, Cameron Parish’s life and economy has historically taken place at sea. As new LNG facilities are operational or in planning locally, locals claim the community they once knew is nearly unrecognizable.
Credit: Xander Peters for Environmental Health News
A disappearing parish
The stakes are seemingly higher for a region like southwest Louisiana, which is the epicenter of climate change impacts.
In nearly a century, the state has lost roughly 2,000 square miles of land to coastal erosion. In part driving the state’s erosion crisis is the compounding impacts of Mississippi River infrastructure and oil and gas industry activity, such as dredging canals for shipping purposes, according to a March study published in the journal Nature Sustainability. Louisiana’s Coastal Protection and Restoration Authority said Cameron Parish could lose more land than other coastal parishes over the next 50 years. A recent Climate Central report says the parish will be underwater within that time frame.
On top of erosion and sea level rise impacts, in August, 2023, marshland across southwest Louisiana’s Cameron Parish burned. The fires were among at least 600 across the Bayou State this year. Statewide, roughly 60,000 acres burned — a more than six-fold increase of the state’s average acres burned per year in the past decade alone.
But while the blaze avoided coastal Louisiana communities like Cameron Parish, the fires represented a warning coming from a growing chorus of locals across the region — one that’s echoes by the local commercial fishing population, who claimed to have experienced unusually low yields during the same time, according to a statement from a local environmental group. At the site of the Cameron Parish fires are locations for two proposed LNG expansion projects.
"The idea is to transform what was once the center of commercial fishing in Louisiana to gas exports.” - Cindy Robertson, an environmental activist in southwest Louisiana
It was an unusual occurrence for an area that’s more often itself underwater this time of year due to a storm surge from powerful storms. For LNG expansion’s local opposition, it was a red flag.
As the Louisiana Bucket Brigade has noted prior, the confluence of climate change’s raising of sea levels and the construction of LNG export terminals — some are proposed at the size of nearly 700 football fields — are wiping away the marshland folks like Allaire watched wither. Among their fears is that the future facilities won’t be able to withstand the power of another storm like Laura and its storm surge, which wiped away entire communities in 2020.
Amidst these regional climate impacts, LNG infrastructure has shown potential to exacerbate the accumulation of greenhouse gasses that cause global warming. For the most part, LNG is made up of methane — a greenhouse gas that’s more than 80 times more potent than carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Among the 22 current LNG facility proposals, the advocacy group Sierra Club described a combined climate pollution output that would roughly equal to that of about 440 coal plants.
The climate impacts prompt some of the LNG industry’s uncertainty going forward. It isn’t clear if Asian countries, key importers of U.S. LNG, will “embrace these energy transition issues,” said David Dismuke, an energy consultant and the former executive director of Louisiana State University’s Center for Energy Studies. Likewise, European nations remain skeptical of embracing LNG as a future staple fuel source.
“They really don't want to have to pull the trigger,” Dismukes added, referring to Europe’s hesitation to commit more resources to exporting LNG from the American market. “They don't want to go down that road.”
While there will be a tapering down of natural gas supply, Miles explained, “we’re going to need natural gas for a long time,” as larger battery storage for renewables is still unavailable.
“I'm not one of these futurists that can tell you where we're going to be, but I just don't see everything being extreme,” Dismukes said. “I don't see what we've already built getting stranded and going away, either.”
For now, LNG seems here to stay. From 2012 to 2022,U.S. natural gas demand — the sum of both domestic consumption and gross exports — rose by a whopping 43%, reported the U.S. Energy Information Administration, or EIA. Meanwhile, in oil and gas hotbeds like Louisiana and Texas, natural gas demand grew by 116%.
Throughout 25 years, Allaire has witnessed southwest Louisiana’s land slowly fade, in part driven by the same industrial spread regionally. Near where the front door of his travel trailer sits underneath the aluminum awning, he points to a chenier ridge located near the end of the property. It’s disappearing, he said.
“See the sand washing over, in here?” Allaire says, as he points towards the stretches of his property. “This pond used to go down for a half mile. This is all that's left of it on this side.”
Florida will no longer prioritize climate change in energy decisions, despite facing severe environmental threats, after Governor Ron DeSantis signed new legislation.
The new law removes most mentions of climate change from state law, bans offshore wind turbines, and weakens regulations on natural gas pipelines.
Supporters claim the law focuses on energy affordability, but climate advocates argue it is symbolic and politically motivated.
Despite legislative changes, Florida's renewable energy, particularly solar, continues to grow due to environmental and public pressure.
Key quote:
“It feels like we’ve taken a major step backward and are no longer recognizing the dangers of greenhouse gases."
— Raymer Maguire, director of campaigns and policy for the CLEO Institute
Why this matters:
This legislation could undermine efforts to combat climate change in a state highly vulnerable to its impacts, such as stronger hurricanes and extreme heat, highlighting a significant policy shift with potential national implications. Read more about Florida's history of "don't ask, don't tell" climate strategy: With Ian, treat climate like an 'active shooter.'
Abalone populations have collapsed due to overfishing and environmental changes, including a marine heatwave and a sunflower sea star epidemic.
The concerning issue is not species extinction but the collapse of wildlife populations, disrupting ecosystems.
The decline of species like abalone signifies a broader biodiversity crisis driven by human activities such as pollution and habitat destruction.
Key quote:
"The more we slow climate change, the more evolutionary storylines can reach into the future. In other words, climate policy is biodiversity policy."
— John Reid, founder, Conservation Strategy Fund.
Why this matters:
The decline in species abundance affects ecosystem stability and human cultural heritage. Addressing this crisis requires comprehensive conservation strategies that go beyond preventing extinction to ensure the health and abundance of wildlife populations. Read more: The planet’s largest ecosystems could collapse faster than we thought.
A marine heat wave in the North Atlantic has set daily temperature records for over a year, raising concerns about its potential to drive an unusually severe hurricane season.
The North Atlantic has experienced unprecedented marine heat waves, breaking daily temperature records for over a year.
Rising ocean temperatures are linked to increasing the strength and frequency of hurricanes, posing significant risks.
This warming trend could signal a potential shift in global climate patterns, alarming scientists worldwide.
Key quote:
“It could imply that a warming planet is already fundamentally altering how the climate system operates, much sooner than scientists had anticipated.”
— Gavin Schmidt, head of NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space Studies
Why this matters:
The sustained oceanic warmth acts as a potent catalyst for hurricanes, enhancing both their frequency and ferocity. This situation poses not only a threat to coastal areas but could also herald broader environmental shifts with significant implications for weather patterns globally.
In addition, increased ocean warmth disrupts the delicate balance of marine ecosystems, leading to coral bleaching, the migration of fish populations away from their traditional habitats, and adverse effects on breeding patterns and food chains. Such changes not only harm the organisms that inhabit these waters but also the fishing communities and industries that depend on them.
The use of municipal bonds to finance clean energy initiatives is gaining traction, enabling significant savings for towns and communities in their pursuit of renewable energy goals.
Municipal bonds have historically allowed towns to purchase natural gas at discounted rates, with the practice now extending to renewable energy, potentially saving 10% or more on long-term contracts.
This shift is being led by entities like the California Community Choice Financing Authority, which has issued nearly $10 billion in renewable energy bonds since 2021.
Despite its potential, Georgia remains hesitant to adopt renewable energy prepays due to its entrenched interests in existing power sources.
Key quote:
“You’re seeing that flexibility creeping in, because everyone is well aware that we’re under a transition, but no one knows how quickly or how smoothly it’s going to go."
— Dennis Pidherny, a managing director on the municipal bond team at Fitch Ratings
Why this matters:
Adopting municipal bonds for renewable energy could dramatically lower costs and accelerate the shift toward sustainable energy sources. This financial strategy may also help mitigate the competitive threats posed by traditional power infrastructures, promoting a broader adoption of renewables in energy plans.
NC State's latest study links sunny day flooding—clear day tidal overflows—to increased fecal bacteria in water.
Lead researcher Megan Carr highlights growing frequency of these floods due to environmental changes.
Despite contamination spikes during high tides, these high bacteria levels tend to be temporary.
Key quote:
"What we know from our study is the floodwaters are fecally contaminated. During high tides, we have floods which move through underground infrastructure, such as stormwater networks."
— Megan Carr, Ph.D. student at NC State
Why this matters:
Fecal contamination can lead to significant health risks such as gastrointestinal illnesses and infections. Residents and visitors coming into contact with these waters might face conditions ranging from minor skin rashes to serious diseases like hepatitis.For the local flora and fauna, the stakes are similarly high. Ecosystems that rely on clean water are disrupted, often with long-lasting effects on marine and coastal biodiversity.
Les Clark III oversees the West Side Recreation and Park District in Taft, heavily funded by the local oil industry, which faces significant decline.
California Resources Corporation proposes a carbon capture project to rejuvenate local jobs and maintain public services without relying on government bailouts.
Skepticism remains among local communities about the safety and actual benefits of storing carbon dioxide underground.
Key quote:
"There’s some kind of window of opportunity, because the industry is trying to evolve."
— Les Clark III, manager of the West Side Recreation and Park District in Taft
Why this matters:
Carbon capture and storage technology, which involves capturing carbon dioxide emissions from sources like power plants and industrial processes before they enter the atmosphere and storing them underground, is gaining traction globally as a tool to combat global warming. For Kern County, which produces about 70% of California's oil, this technology could transform the very infrastructure that once bolstered its economy into a new, greener legacy.
Wildfire smoke from Canadian blazes has dramatically worsened air quality across the Midwestern United States, permeating indoor environments despite efforts to keep it out.
More than 140 wildfires in Alberta and British Columbia have sent smoke across U.S. borders, affecting indoor air quality even with closed windows and doors.
Experts emphasize the importance of high-quality air filtration systems to combat the infiltration of outdoor pollutants indoors.
Vulnerable groups like children and the elderly face significant health risks from prolonged exposure to this smoke.
Key quote:
“Housing quality plays a big role in this. If you’re in an older, leakier home, you’re going to be exposed to more wildfire smoke."
— Elliott Gall, mechanical and materials engineering professor at Portland State University
Why this matters:
As climate change escalates the frequency and severity of wildfires, more individuals will likely experience adverse health effects from smoke exposure. Effective indoor air quality management is becoming important for health safety, particularly in densely populated and vulnerable communities.
The study highlights how black carbon from wildfires does not sequester carbon dioxide as effectively as hoped, speeding up its conversion back to CO2.
Research shows wildfires double the soil levels of harmful polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, obstructing plant regrowth.
Findings suggest wildfires convert metals into toxic forms, contaminating water supplies and hindering ecological recovery.
Key quote:
"Carbon that’s gone through forest fires and becomes black carbon can actually turn more readily into carbon dioxide by microbes than previously thought."
— Scott Fendorf, professor, Stanford University’s Doerr School of Sustainability
Why this matters:
When wildfires rage through an area, the intense heat incinerates vegetation and organic matter that are crucial for healthy soil. This loss not only depletes the soil of nutrients but also reduces its ability to store carbon, leading to increased levels of carbon dioxide—a greenhouse gas that contributes to global warming—released back into the atmosphere. In addition, the structure of the soil changes, becoming more compact and less able to absorb water. This leads to greater runoff during rainfalls and can also cause harmful substances like heavy metals to be more easily washed into rivers and streams, affecting water quality and aquatic life.
Rising temperatures in Africa extend the life cycle of disease vectors like mosquitoes and ticks, increasing disease spread.
Edward Miano emphasized climate change as a major public health crisis, linking it to the reemergence of diseases in previously unaffected areas.
Collaborative efforts across various sectors are deemed necessary to combat the adverse effects of climate change on health.
Key quote:
"It is crucial to acknowledge the gravity of the situation that we are facing today, especially around climate change, as it is no longer only an environmental concern, but it has evolved into a significant public health crisis with far-reaching implications for communities worldwide."
— Edward Miano, executive director of the Health Rights Advocacy Forum
Why this matters:
Climate change reshapes our environment and our health landscape, making once rare diseases common and introducing new health threats to regions already facing socio-economic challenges.
Brian Harvey and his team study the regeneration of old-growth rainforests after wildfires, noting the importance of these forests for carbon storage.
Despite typically wet conditions that deter fires, recent climate trends and dry spells have led to more frequent and severe wildfires in these regions.
The resilience of these forests is under scrutiny, with efforts to understand how they can be protected in the face of escalating fire risks.
Key quote:
“The dynamics of these forests really unfold over multiple human lifetimes."
— Brian Harvey, University of Washington forest fire ecologist
Why this matters:
As wildfires continue to flare up with increasing frequency and intensity on the West Coast, a question arises: How will the region’s ancient rainforests withstand the onslaught of climate change? These verdant expanses, some of which have stood for millennia, are iconic landscapes and also act as vital ecological strongholds that harbor a rich biodiversity and play a crucial role in carbon sequestration.
